Ba Main Transformation Process

Executive Summary The purpose of this report is to discuss the main theories, models, frameworks and issues in the area of operations management, using British Airways as a working model, throughout the report. It was prepares for a coursework assignment as part of a Operations Management Module Academic journals and books from the area of operations management were used to illustrate the main points in the report to give evidence and back up the information provided. Key findings of this report show how quality impacts on the development of the operations strategy in British Airways and how the key elements of design contribute hugely in operations. The importance and role of supply chain was discussed and three quality control methods; Quality Sampling, Total Quality Management and ISO 9000 were evaluated to how they could improve the performance of British Airways. Conclusions were drawn and it was found that operations management, based on the points discussed is a major factor to an organisations success. Contents Page Page Number 1. Introduction4 2. BA’s Main Transformation Process 5 & 6 3. Quality & Operations Strategy 7, 8 & 9 4. Design in Operations 10 4. 1Concept Generation10 2. Concept Screening10 4. 3Preliminary Design 10 & 11 4. 4Evaluation and Improvement11 4. 5Prototyping and final design 11 & 12 5. The Role of Supply Chain 13 1. Quality13 2. Speed14 3. Dependability14 4. Flexibility15 5. Cost15 6. Quality Control Methods16 1. Quality Sampling17 2. Total Quality Management 17 & 18 3. ISO 900018 7. Conclusions19 8. References 20 & 21 1. Introduction This report has been issued by University as part of this Operations Management module, in which a company will be selected and used as a working model throughout the report. The chosen company that will be used in relation to operations management is British Airways (hereafter BA). The various elements of operations management will be researched and applied to BA’s main transformation process. This will be done using academic articles and books in the area of operations management to illustrate the main points. The report will begin with an overview of BA’s main transformation process indicating key inputs and outputs and then investigate how quality might impact upon the development of the operation strategy. Next it will review the key elements of design and how this impacts on the operation. Finally the role of supply chain in BA’s operation will be discussed and three different quality control methods will be evaluated to show how these might improve the performance in operations. Conclusions will be drawn and any overriding management issues identified. . BA’s Main Transformation Process The transformation process is a â€Å"model that describes operations in terms of their input resources, transforming processes and outputs of goods or services† (Slack et al, 2008, Page 8) BA use their aircrafts and staff which allows passengers and freight to travel from one destination to another thus, making this BA’s main transformation process. The operations fu nction of a business is the arrangement of the resources which are allocated to the production and delivery of an organisations goods and services. Three roles that are important for an operations function are the implementer, supporter and driver of the business strategy. In this example the operations functions follows the inputs of the transformation process. BA’s main transformation process inputs are the 238 aircraft in service, 32 million passengers, and 760,000 tonnes of cargo that it carried in 2009/10 along with the pilots and cabin crew. These are the transforming resources which allow the operation to take place and results in the service being provided. This uses the transformed resources which can be split into two types; facilities such as the buildings and equipment, and staff who are all the people involved in the operation in some way. (ba. com) â€Å"The main activities of British Airways Plc and its subsidiary undertakings are the operation of international and domestic scheduled air services for the carriage of passengers, freight and mail and the provision of ancillary services† As BA is one of the worlds largest airlines operating internationally, the transformation process can be complicated with many units or departments interconnecting and contributing to the overall operation. Some of the operations with in BA include British Airways World Cargo carrying freight, mail and courier traffic. (ba. com) They key outputs of BA’s transformation process are the millions of transported passengers to over 300 worldwide destinations and the cargo including dangerous goods and live animals. The outputs are services and therefore intangible. 3. Quality & Operations Strategy Operations strategies plan how the function will achieve future goals which are aligned with the companies overall strategy. This can be done by understanding current capabilities and limitations, exploiting current capabilities in quality and process innovation. The basic role of operations is to implement strategy. â€Å"Operations strategy concerns the pattern of strategic decisions and actions which set the role, objectives and activities of the operation† (Slack et al, 2007, Page 63) Operations are the resources that create products and services. There are four perspectives on operations strategy; top down, market requirements, bottom up and operations resources perspective. BA states â€Å"Meeting the rising expectations of our customers’ remains central to our strategy of transforming British Airways into the world’s leading global premium airline† This includes investment in their staff, aeroplanes and facilities in order to provide a premium quality service to their customers. (ba. com) â€Å"Quality is consistent conformance to customers’ expectations† (Slack et al, 2007, Page 539) Relating this to the above strategy of BA the quality of the service would be the friendly and helpful cabin crew, the flight leaving on time, clean aircraft and baggage arriving at the same time and destination as the passenger. Punctuality ensures other operational processes run smoothly and remains a key factor in whether customers would recommend British airways to other travellers† (ba. com). Therefore if BA produces a quality service to all of its customers, it is likely that they will get more business through recommendation s and giving them an advantage over other airlines. As the quality of service that BA provides is paramount to the customer and can be a deciding factor on repeat business, this will have to be incorporated to the overall operations strategy of the organisation for it to be a success. In BA’s 2009/10 annual report and accounts their strategy and objectives include meeting customer needs and improving margins through new revenue streams. Total Quality Management can have an influential impact on this as quality can reduce costs and increase dependability. â€Å"Lowered total quality expenditures, increased level of quality and reallocation of quality resources to prevention and away from appraisal and defect/failure correction activities† (SAM Advanced Management Journal, 1990, Page 25). This supports the above strategy of BA. TQM enables the developing of strategic thinking due to its inter-disciplinary nature† (Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, 2004, Page 264) Overall in respect to BA this means that there has to be quality control in place for the overall strategy to be successful. When developing the operations strategy, taking quality into consideration there may be a higher cost initially, however, referring to the research a bove costs may be reduced overall due to less errors and more emphasis being placed on prevention tactics. 4. Design in Operations There are five stages of service design which will be looked at individually in relation to BA; 4. 1Concept Generation If BA were to introduce a new destination to the existing range that they already offer if they decide to follow the market requirement perspective which is â€Å"what the market position requires operations to do† (Slack et al, 2001, Page 65). A lot of people would have to be involved from management at the top down to the customers. Market research would be a good idea to get ideas and suggestions from the customers for the proposed new estination. â€Å"Operations strategy involves translating marketing requirements into operations decisions† (Slack et al, 2007, Page 63) 2. Concept Screening This stage involves the ides going through feasibility, acceptability and vulnerability evaluation. Questions such as are the resources such as aircrafts and staff available, will it be accepted and what may go wrong with it and will it all be answered and evalua ted. At this stage the ideas will progressively get fewer as each one is evaluated until there is only one possibility left. . Preliminary Design Preliminary design is the identifying of component products and services in the package, which in this case is the new flight destination in BA and the process of this will also be defined at this stage. The components of the new flight destination may be the aircraft, cabin crew, pilot, information leaflets and arrangement of new flight path and times. BA is part of a mass service process type in which there are many customers transactions therefore there is limited contact time and not much room for customisation. For example BA cannot put on a special journey for a single person as there are a range of pre-planned journeys for passengers to choose between. 4. Evaluation and Improvement Design evaluation and improvement is used to see if the preliminary design can be improves and this can be done using various techniques including quality function deployment, value engineering and taguchi methods. Looking at Quality Function Deployment (QFD), which is a technique used to ensure that the eventual design of BA’s service actually meets the needs of the customers. For example the new flight destination would have to be where the customers want to go and figure how this can be achieved. 5. Prototyping and final design The final stage of design is to turn the design into a prototype. For the new flight destination this may be running the flight on a trial basis to get reactions and feedback from the BA customers. Through the design process the five performance objectives; quality, speed, dependability, flexibility and cost will be considered. For example it can be decided if the quality of service will be the same as a regular flight or if it is going to be increased and marketed as a premium flight. Will the flight be dependable and be on a regular basis and will the cost be in relation to the service as mentioned above and if the customers will be willing to pay more. This would be classed as a product layout within BA which â€Å"involves locating the transforming resources entirely for the convenience of the transformed resources† (Slack et al, 2007, page 193). The transforming resources being the people, for example in BA as they can move through the airport in a predetermined route to enable them to get to the aircraft. 5. 0The role of Supply Chain A supply chain can be described as â€Å"A linkage or strand of operations that provides goods and services through to end customers; within a supply network several supply chains will cross through an individual operation† (Slack et al, 2007, page 402) All supply chain management has a common objective to satisfy the end customer and in the case of BA this will be the people travelling on the flight or BA’s World Cargo. As mentioned in the design process the five performance objectives; quality, speed, dependability, flexibility and cost will have to achieve appropriate levels in the supply chain. These can be looked at individually in relation to BA: 1. Quality For a flight many onboard services are required including the equipment food and drink. By the time the meal reaches the customer on the flight it has gone through many operations in the supply chain. It is important that at each stage there are minimal errors as this multiplies by the time it reaches the customer. Each stage then needs to take responsibility for its own and their supplier’s performance. This can in turn, ensure that the supply chain can achieve a high level of customer satisfaction at the end and therefore increase the chance of returning custom. 2. Speed In relation to BA, speed can mean the time it takes a customer to be served from the time they request the item to when it arrives. For example, receiving a drink in-flight. A fast response may be achieved by ensuring there is enough resources and stock, such as flight attendants and beverages within the supply chain. If there is a large amount of stock then the customers demand will be fulfilled. In order for this to be successful, the products received from further up the supply chain, such as from the manufacturers need to have fast throughput time. Achieving this allows the customer demands to be met if there is stock readily available. 3. Dependability This means that BA has to have to correct stock in the right place at the right time. The airline needs to have the correct number or supplies or more on board at the time of a flight take off to ensure the demands of the customers are met. For example â€Å"If the individual operations in a chain do not deliver as promised on time, there will be a tendency for customers to over order, or order early, in order to provide some kind of insurance against late delivery† (Slack et al, 2007, page 404) A way that BA can control their â€Å"items of low value, fairly consistent usage and short lead time† (Tersine, 1982, page 432) such as beverages is the two bin re-ordering system. This is an effective way of controlling stock levels as it can easily be seen when the re-order point is reached. 4. Flexibility Flexibility is the supply chains ability to manage changes and disturbances. If BA’s stock levels are managed this should allow flexibility so the end customer’s needs are met and done so in a responsive manner. For BA to be flexible all operations in the supply chain must also be flexible. 5. Cost At each operational stage of the supply chain costs are incurred in order to produce the final product or service. A way of reducing costs is through JIT. Just-in-time is a Japanese management philosophy which tries to eliminate waste and always improve productivity. JIT has many roles to play in an organisation as â€Å"Continuous improvement processes are associated with JIT including product quality, process efficiency, information systems and operating value-added activities more effectively while eliminating non-value-added activities† (Wild, 2002, page 61) BA may also incur costs whilst finding the right suppliers or trying to find one supplier of there required costs to cut the cost of their transactions and come to a mutually beneficial agreement for both parties. 6. Quality Control Methods Measures for quality characteristics within BA can include functionality which is how well the service does the job, for example taking people to their required destination safely. Appearance is another which relates to the decor and cleanliness of aircraft, lounges and crew. Reliability, consistency of the flight service and keeping to the allocated times is another characteristic which is important to the service that BA provides. Durability ensures that the service provided is up to date and relevant to the customers needs. Recovery is the ease with which problems can be resolved and contact between airline staff and customers. These characteristics can be measured as variables and attributes. For quality control methods to take place operations must identify how the quality characteristics can be measured and a standard to which it can be checked against. As much of BA’s quality comes down to service it can be difficult to perceive as this has no quantified measure. Quality control uses statistics, process analysis and quality standards, these attempts are to solve the root cause of any quality problems. Quality means â€Å"doing things right, first time, every time† (Slack et al, 2010, Page 505) and in turn this will have a positive effect on revenues costs and customer satisfaction. The techniques of controlling quality that will be looked at in relation to BA are; quality sampling, total quality management and ISO 9000. 1. Quality Sampling This can be done by handing out surveys towards the end of the flight to receive customer feedback. The results can then be used to determine whether or not the quality characteristics mentioned above are up to the correct standards as expected by the customers and what BA wants to achieve. This will not be 100% checking as not every person will take the time to fill this out; however it can give a good indication of BA’s performance. The results of this can then be used to find areas that need to be approved for example the courtesy of the crew or areas that are positive such are the decor and cleanliness of the aircraft. Overall if action is taken this should help to improve the performance of BA. 2. Total Quality Management Total Quality Management, (TQM) means meeting the needs and expectations of customers. This includes all costs associated with quality which are prevention, appraisal, internal and external failure costs. Prevention costs are used to save failures and errors occurring. This can be the training and development of personnel and designing and improving of services and aircrafts to reduce any quality problems. Appraisal costs that could be incurred with BA are the setting of sampling plans as mentioned above and also conducting customer surveys. Internal failure costs, dealt from within the BA may include lost time due to errors. For example if problems occur and a flight is delayed or unable to take off. If a strategy is in place this could prevent this error from happening. Finally external failure costs which are errors going out of the operation to the customer. An example can be an annoyed customer who take up the time of staff at a check in desk. The main aim of TQM is that the processes and products will be continually improved. 3. ISO 9000 Without any quality control methods there is little or no basis to measure and monitor quality performance. Certification to the ISO 9000 standard demonstrates if an organisations quality of service and products are acceptable. This may improve the performance of BA as it gives assurance to customers that the service has to be at a certain standard so therefore there could be an increase of custom. However this could prove costly to train staff and conducing audits. 7. Conclusions The main findings from this report were the effects of quality on the development of the operations strategy and how design also impacts on this within BA. It was shown how quality, speed, dependability, flexibility and cost form the basis to all the decisions that are made in the area of operations management. It was found that meeting the rising expectations of BA’s customers was paramount and quality control remained central in this. It was suggested that BA could us a survey to receive feedback to work on and improve if appropriate. This could increase the standard of quality of service within the organisation. The five stages of design in operations; concept generation, concept screening, preliminary design, evaluation and improvement and prototyping and final design were identified and evaluated. The role of supply chain was discussed against the five performance objectives; quality, speed, dependability, flexibility and cost will have to achieve appropriate levels in the supply chain. Quality and its importance were shown how it can improve the performance of BA. In final conclusion it as found that operations management, based on the points discussed is a major factor to an organisations success. 8. References LEONARD, D and MCADAM, R. , 2004. Total quality management in strategy and operations: dynamic grounded models, Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management. online]. 15(3). Pp. 254-266. Available from: http://www. emeraldinsight. com/journals. htm? issn=1741-038X&volume=15&issue=3&articleid=851034&show=html www. emeraldinsight. com [Accessed 12th December 2010] www. ba. com [Accessed throughout December 2010] SLACK, N. , CHAMBERS, S. and JOHNSTON, R. , 2007. Operations Management. 5th ed. Essex: Pearson Education Limited GILMORE, H. L. , 1990. Continuous Incrementa l Improvement: An Operations Strategy for Higher Quality, Lower Costs, and Global Competitiveness. SAM Advanced Management Journal. online]. 55(1). Pp. 21. Available from: http://web. ebscohost. com/ehost/detail? vid=10&hid=112&sid=a64d86a6-2b59-4820-89e8-685e3526e9e7%40sessionmgr110&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=buh&AN=4601151 [Accessed 13th December 2010] SLACK, N. , CHAMBERS, S. and JOHNSTONE, R. , 2001. Operations Management. 3rd ed. Essex: Pearson Education Limited WILD, T. , 2002. Best Practice in Inventory Management. 2nd ed. Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd TERSINE, R J. , 1982. Principles of Inventory and Materials Management. nd ed. New York, NY: Elsevier Science Publishing Co. , Inc TANNINEN, K. , PUUMALAINEN, K. and SANDSTROM, J. M. , 2010. the power of TQM: analysis of its effects on profitability, productivity and customer satisfaction. Total Quality Management & Business Excellence. [online] 21(2) Pp. 171-184. Available from: http://web. ebscohost. com/ehost/detai l? vid=7&hid=105&sid=15499fbe-0026-4e12-b2c1-b55559c94134%40sessionmgr114&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=buh&AN=47760259 [Accessed 16th December 2010]

Examining the selection criteria for equity finance investment in social enterprise

Research Methodology The main purpose of this section is to discuss how the primary research has been carried out and the rationale for the choice of methodology. The conclusion of the literature review showed that there are currently no publically agreed criteria for social venture capital funding and very little in the way of conclusive advice for social enterprises attempting to raise this kind of funding. As a result, it is important to gather primary data to facilitate the development of robust conclusions and to answer the research questions. When proposing a research methodology for an in-depth study such as this, Saunders et al. (2009) suggest that it is practical to build the research methodology and research design in such a way that it supports the overall aim and objectives of the research. As such, every aspect of the methodology must reflect the overall purpose of the research, and be geared towards answering the research question and accomplishing its objectives (Neuman, 2000). This chapter therefore outlines the methodology through which the research objectives were met, and the question answered. Several important factors, such as the research philosophy, design, strategy and data collection are highlighted. Issues relating to the research’s validity, generalizability and reliability are also discussed. Research Philosophy According to Easterby-Smith et al (2008), it is important to understand the research philosophy being adopted in management research, as it helps clarify how the research should be designed, approached, and how data could be collected and analysed. Easterby-Smith et al also note that an understanding of the research philosophy could help the researcher in creating, designing and identifying research that may not in line with past experiences. Based on the research aims and objectives, the researcher deemed it most appropriate to adopt an interpretivist philosophy. This is due to the overriding aim of this research, which is to understand the reasons behind social enterprise funding, thus implying that there is a need to understand human responses to a situation, thereby making the result of the findings potentially subjective in nature (Denzin and Lincoln, 2003). Saunders et al (2009) note â€Å"interpretivism is an epistemology that advocates that it is necessary for the researcher to understand differences between humans in our role as social actors† The researcher will need to make sense of the subjective and socially constructed meanings expressed by respondents, as per the interpretivist philosophy (Saunders et al, 2009). The interpretivist perspective can be argued to be decidedly appropriate when it comes to management research due to the complexity and uniqueness of business situations (Saunders et al, 2012; Neuman, 2000). As a result of this choice, the positivist philosophy would not be adopted in this study, as it would be ineffective to adopt a philosophy that observes and generalises social reality (Robson, 2002). Collis and Hussey (2003) also argue that the positivist philosophy cannot help understand the inner feelings, attitudes and human emotions behind social enterprise investments, as these could differ from one investor to another. Research Approach According to Collis and Hussey (2003) a research that adopts an interpretivist philosophy should be inductive in its approach. An inductive approach to research can help to gain an understanding of human interpretation to events, which is especially useful in management research, where the attitude and motivation of stakeholders matter (Saunders et al, 2009). As this study is concerned with understanding how social enterprise investors determine their investment criteria, then it is useful for this research to adopt an approach that makes it possible to understand human emotions and attitudes, compared to the deductive approach that is usually based on generalised scientific principles and academic theories (Bryman and Bell, 2007). Research Purpose As the aim of this study is to identify what social venture capitalists look for in an investment opportunity, this lends itself very much to an exploratory research methodology. According to Robson (2002, pg. 59), â€Å"an exploratory research is a valuable means of finding out what is happening; to seek new insights; to ask questions and to assess phenomena in a new light.† Saunders et al (2009) also state that an exploratory research is useful if the aim of the research is to understand a problem, find out what’s happening, or when the researcher is particularly unsure about a research problem. As such, an exploratory study is an ideal design, as it helps to answer this research’s question more effectively. An exploratory study has been chosen compared to descriptive studies – which portray accurate events of people, events or situations (Robson, 2002), because this research seeks to ‘find out’ and not to ‘narrate’. Furthermore, the literature review already shows that there is insufficient information on selection criteria on social enterprise investments, which defeats the purpose of a descriptive study. The same also applies to explanatory studies, where the emphasis is to study a situation and explain the relationship between two or more variables (Saunders et al, 2009). This study is not designed to assess the relationship between variables, but rather to understand investor attitude. An exploratory study is therefore the most effective form of answering the research question. Data Collection Saunders et al. (2009) suggest that when gathering primary data for an inductive exploratory study, it is normal that much of the data will be qualitative in nature. While there is a considerable amount of quantitative data around the subject of venture capital and social enterprise, these statistics are not sufficient to clarify investment criteria. A further issue with quantitative data is that this research does not seek to reconcile hypothesis and as a result, a methodology needs to be chosen that produces qualitative data. To answer the research question, and to develop a better understanding of this new development for both the social VC and social enterprise industries, it is important to collect data that is rich in opinion and explanation (as recommended by Morris and Wood, 1991). Qualitative data collection is therefore the most appropriate for this research. As it is anticipated that much of the primary data gathered for this study will be qualitative in nature, Saunders et al. (2009) suggests that there are several techniques for gathering primary data. These include inter alia interviews, surveys, focus groups, case studies, and participant observation. To obtain rich data that will be sufficient to allow for analysis, the development of themes, and sufficient contrast of opinion, techniques such as questionnaires and general surveys with large samples are unlikely to be effective (Morris and Wood, 1991). Firstly due to the fact that they will not provide the necessary opinion to answer the research question but more importantly due to the fact that there is a limited sample of available respondents with the necessary experience in their industry, as will be clarified in the data sources section of this methodology. While both the VC industry and the social enterprise ‘movement’ are well established, the actual link between them is relatively new and as a result it is important to select a technique that allows for the development of theories to emerge during data collection and analysis. A longitudinal study would potentially be ideal as would the case study method, since both of these allow for the opportunity for the discovery of interesting new ideas and theories (Adams and Schvaneveldt, 1991). A longitudinal study is not appropriate for this dissertation due to the time constraints, and so a cross-sectional study is more appropriate. While there was the potential to carry out a case study of either a social VC fund or a social enterprise, this would have only provided information around one organization. To effectively analyse the link between two industries it is more appropriate to gather data from a broad cross section of organizations and links to avoid either any bias or à ¢â‚¬Å"isolate opinion† (Collis and Hussey, 2003). According to Belk (2008), the main weakness of qualitative data collection is that it can be limited by insufficient resources. This means that because interviews are resource intensive, a narrower range of opinion is gathered. However Collins & Hussey (2003) argue that if the interviews are well structured even though they only gather the opinions of a relatively small research population the depth and breadth of data gathered and the fact that it is contextually relevant is certainly sufficient in terms of data validity and reliability for an exploratory study such as this. Having established the time limitations and the issue that the potential sample is limited but should be sufficiently broad, interviews emerge as the most appropriate methodology. As Sanders et al (2009) explains, there are a number of different ways that an interview can be conducted. It is first important to establish which structure of interview is the most appropriate. There are three main categories of interview structure, and these are: structured, semi-structured and unstructured. The primary distinction between them being the level of freedom given to the researcher in terms of asking different questions to interviewees, and varying the length allowed for the responses (Saunders et al, 2009). The literature showed that there is no clarity as to either the criteria used for funding or for the advice to those seeking funding, and as a result there needs to be the opportunity for the interviewees to express opinion and provide information that moves beyond the confines of a set of structured questions. To develop new and interesting theories, it is essential that the interviews allow for different responses (Robson, 2002). However, this dissertation has a limitation of length which prevents unstructured interviews from being an appropriate technique as it could potentially allow for too much data to be collected making analysis overly complex or it could prevent the necessary focus on the issues related to the research question. Semi-structured interviews allow for sufficient data to be collected while also providing the flexibility that is necessary for the researcher to develop both original insight and sufficient opinion for the analysis (Bryman and Bell, 2007). Data Sources and Data Collection Techniques Since it has been established that the author shall conduct semi-structured interviews, it is important at this stage to re-visit the research questions, which are as follows: When evaluating social enterprises for equity investment, which criteria are considered most important Do social venture capitalists differ in their evaluation criteria compared to commercial venture capitalists Secondary research question: What are the drivers for the social venture capitalists A questionnaire has been developed accordingly and used as a guideline, allowing for flexibility of the discussion and giving the respondents room to reject certain questions or focus on questions that was within their expertise, whilst still ensuring answers to the more critical questions. This semi-structured format is favourable also because it allows for discretion and prioritization in time management, without the need to interrupt or inconvenience the respondent (Neuman, 2000). Primary data has been gathered using said questionnaire, from five individuals that are responsible for screening social enterprises in the UK for access to equity investment. Five interview respondents were seen as ideal for a number of reasons. Firstly, this research is exploratory in nature; secondly, time constraints would have made it difficult to gather and analyse data from more than five respondents; and lastly, it was difficult to gain access to these individuals. The semi-structured interviews were conducted over the phone and in face-to-face environments, as per the respondents’ preference. The questionnaire was shared beforehand allowing the respondents time to consider and prepare for the questions if need be, as well as to filter out respondents who were not well suited. Research participants were encouraged to expand upon their responses to allow the researcher to gather a wide range of data (Belk, 2008). The interviews were audio-recorded with consent and subsequently transcribed verbatim[1], in order to allow the researcher to focus on the interview and fully engage with the respondent, without compromising on the accuracy of the data collected (Robson, 2002). This further allowed for the researcher to take note of additional non-verbal communication to enrich the quality of data retrieved (Kvale and Brinkmann, 2009). At the end of each interview, a summary was developed in order to reflect upon the progression of the interview process and start developing any findings. This â€Å"stop and reflect† process in between interviews, as recommended by Saunders et al (2009), has allowed the researcher to adapt to this new knowledge and delve deeper into the research questions with each ensuing interview. This process has led to an additional set of questions on the questionnaire[2], with the aim of addressing four new research questions: Is there in fact a market/demand for equity investment in social enterprise in the UK Is there a supply/demand balance of social enterprises to social investment How do SIFIs interact What does the future of social investment look like Once the data had been gathered, the author administered data reduction techniques (Miles and Huberman, 1994) by critically reviewing and selectively focusing on key parts of the extended text which are the transcripts. By extracting relevant pieces of information to answer our research questions, along with our notes throughout the interview process, the author was then able to codify the data, which was then subject to thematic analysis. Data collection, data analysis and the development and verification of the propositions have been very much an interactive and interrelated set of processes, whereby actual analysis occurred throughout. The flexibility of this process was key to enabling more insightful data and propositions, as enabled by an inductive approach. Issues of Reliability, Validity and Generalisability Reliability denotes the extent to which findings from a research can provide consistent findings, if another study were to adopt its data gathering and sampling technique (Easterby-Smith et al, 2008). The major threats to research liability: respondent bias, respondent error, interviewer bias and interviewer error (Robson, 2002) were avoided by: Sending the questionnaires to the respondents beforehand to avoid misinterpretation of intent or questions. Audio-recording the interviews, and taking ‘time-outs’ to reflect on the answers and ask further questions. Analyzing the data using data-reduction techniques, in order to prioritize the key findings and avoid loss of data. Validity, according to Saunders et al (2009) â€Å"is concerned with whether findings are really about what they appear to be about†. The interview questions were based on the research question, thus linking respondent answers to the overall aim of the research. Furthermore, the respondents were accredited professionals with industry insight on social enterprise investments. As a result, they were most fit to answer the interview questions. This helped ensure the data collected and analysed was valid. Generalisability measures the extent to which research findings are generalizable to other research settings (Saunders et al, 2009). Due to the inductive nature of this study, it is the researcher’s opinion that the findings of this research are generalizable to social enterprise investments in the UK. The findings from this research could help explain how investors determine what social enterprises they would invest in the UK. This is due to socio-economic factors that may differ from one country to another. Ethics With any primary research it is imperative that matters relating to research ethics are taken into account (Denzin and Lincoln, 2003). This includes ensuring that research participants have a clear understanding of what the research will entail and their contribution to the research. Research participants have agreed to support the research voluntarily, and so Denzin and Lincoln (2003, p.114) describe this as â€Å"informed consent†. The author has explained the nature of the research and reassured research participants of their role. Furthermore, confidentiality will be maintained through ensuring anonymity of research participants throughout this dissertation, only divulging participants’ names on a need to know basis to dissertation assessors. Not only is this ethical best practice, but Bryman & Bell (2011) also highlight the fact that it further ensures that the researcher gathers legitimate data which is not subject to inadvertent bias, for example a research p articipant feels that they must say nice things about their supervisor. In this instance because the research is heavily reliant on personal opinion then it is imperative that research ethics are observed. Due to the respondents’ varying assumptions in definition when referring to key research terms, such as â€Å"social enterprise† and â€Å"social venture capital†, all questions were clarified in detail where necessary, and the author ensured an alignment of understanding prior to collecting data. References Adams, G. R. and Schvaneveldt, J. D. (1991) Understanding Research Methods, Longman Group: UK, 406pp Bryman, A. and Bell, E. (2007) Business Research Methods, 2nd Ed, Oxford University Press: Oxford, 786pp Collis, J. and Hussey, R. (2003) Business Research: A Practical Guide for Undergraduate and Postgraduate Students, 2nd Ed, Palgrave McMillan: NY, 374pp Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R., and Lowe, A. (2008) Management Research: An Introduction, 2nd Ed, SAGE: London, 194pp Morris, T. and Wood, S. (1991), ‘Testing the survey method: continuity and change in British industrial relations’, Work, Employment & Society, Vol. 5 No. 2, pp. 259- 82. Neuman, W. L. (2000) Basics of social research: qualitative and quantitative approaches, Pearson: UK, 391pp Robson, C. (2002) Real world research: a resource for social scientists and practitioner – researchers, 2nd Ed, Wiley-Blackwell: NY, 599pp Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2009) Research methods for business students, Fifth Edition, Pearson Education: NJ, 624pp

Non Violent Resistance

Chenoweth and Stephan's arguments and research show that non violent campaigns are more successful than violent campaigns against violent political regimes. Though violent protests can show to be successful and they do get the point across though in a very different way, non violent protests I will have to agree, are the best and most efficient way to go about combating a violent opposition. With cases such as Dr.Martin Luther King, and Ghandi being two of the most noted cases. (not to say that there are not many more) The two writers argue 2 main points as to why a nonviolent approaches are strategically more sound than those that promote violence. The first argument is t hat when a violent force (especially a regime) tries to repress an non-violent campaign, the repression may backfire. â€Å"First, repressing nonviolent campaigns may backfire.In backfire, an unjust act—often violent repression—recoils against its originators, often resulting in the breakdown of obed ience among regime supporters, mobilization of the population against the regime, and international condemnation of the regime† (Cenoweth ; Stephan, 11) In turn when a violent regime confronts a non-violent regime with violence, it sends a message of hostility that will label that country hostile. I associate this with the, Nuke the Middle East comments.Though acts of terrorism may be common in the area the amount of civilian and peaceful citizens in the area would make a no holds bar bombing unacceptable (as well as unlawful in regards to international laws) They also mention a breakdown in support for the violent regime. I agree. As a violent force aggressively challenges a nonviolent movement that is just that, non violent, support tends to diminish from the regime causing a power shift and essentially the regime could collapse due to exhausting funds and lack of support.That is a very interesting and true perspective of a non violent protest strategy that I had not thought of and after thinking about it I tend I lean more towards this argument than I did when I had first began reading this article. Their second argument for non-violent campaigns is that they promote negotiations. They explain that most regimes are more easily swayed to negotiate with a non violent organization as they are not causing harm the regime itself or the military by taking hands on action.They bring up something called Correspondence Inference Theory. Basically we respond to an opponent based on their actions. If they're non violent you would confront them as such and the same goes if they are violent. They make the point that public acceptance is the heart of any resistance and the public masses would be more opt to follow a non violent one than a violent. The reason is simple, the public will not feel as threatened. I feel as though these are great arguments.If by chance a cop de tat had arose in the united states i feel i would be more opt to join a non violent route, suc h as the hippie movement in the 1960's where the protests were expressed via music instead of violence. Of course there are special occurrences where the two above arguments are invalid. During the civil rights protests many African American protesters were hosed down by the authorities even though they had followed Dr. Kings message of peace.Dr. King himself though an advocate of peace was assassinated by the opposition. As previously stated I agree with the authors that a non violent approach strategically is a wonderful idea but it has a down side and I believe that it leaves the peace makers vulnerable to opposition extremists who are not worried about international opinion A few recent examples being Terrorist organizations like Al Queda, and tyrants such as Hitler, Stalin, and North Korea.

The Buzzword of Todays Business Environment Essay

The Buzzword of Todays Business Environment - Essay Example Glueck (1988) defines strategy as a â€Å"unified, comprehensive and integrated plan, relating the strategic advantages of the firm to the challenges of the environment. It is designed to ensure that the basic objectives of the enterprise are achieved.† Johnson & Scholes (1993) effectively summarized all the features of strategy as "the direction and scope of the organization over the long term: ideally which matches its resources to its changing environment and in particular its markets, customers, or clients so as to meet stakeholder expectations." The above definitions point out that strategy is a plan that ties all the parts of the enterprise together, covers all major aspects of the enterprise and all parts of the plan are compatible with each other and fit together well. Wheelen & Hunger (2003) describe strategic management as â€Å"that set of managerial decisions and actions that determine the long run performance of a corporation. It includes environmental scanning (both external and internal), strategy formulation (strategic or long-range planning), strategy implementation and evaluation and control.† Strategic management is defined by Chandler (1971) as â€Å"the determination of basic long-term goals and objectives of an enterprise and adoption of course of action and allocation of resources necessary to carry out these goals.† 3. The positioning school - The thoughts were heavily influenced by the ideas of Michael Porter and emphasize that strategy depends on the positioning of the firm in the market and within its industry. 10. The configuration school- The school opines that strategy is a process of transforming the organization and describing the relative stability of strategy, interrupted by occasional and dramatic leaps to new ones. In the early 1980s, Peters & Waterman (1982) developed the McKinsey 7S framework.  

How effective were Jim Crow Laws Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

How effective were Jim Crow Laws - Assignment Example In fact, freedom that the black population had once obtained meant practically nothing with such a system in law. Jim Crow laws were elaborated as a system of segregation and discrimination of African Americas, practiced in the southern states and some of the border states. These were laws which separated people of color from the white population and restricted contacts between them in various public places, schools, jobs, and housing. They were totally based on the supremacy of whites. If to talk about the origin of the name of the laws, it comes from a minstrel character Jim Crow, popular in the early 1800s. This is still unclear how, but the characters name Jim Crow became widely associated with the laws, customs and etiquette, which promoted segregation of African Americans from the 1870s to the 1960s (Pilgrim, 2012). Jim Crow laws turned to be especially effective if to take electoral system into consideration. The key idea was to decrease the number of black voters. First of all, it is worthy to mention poll taxes, which required people to pay a fee to register for voting. A lot of poor people could not afford this, which is why most African Americans  and  Native Americans  had no opportunity to vote, as well as poor whites. Blacks were also denied the right to vote on the basis of grandfather clauses. This right was restricted only to those blacks whose ancestors had voted before the Civil War (Pilgrim, 2012). One more device for restricting voting rights was literacy tests. For instance, such a task: ‘Name all the Vice Presidents and Supreme Court Justices throughout America’s history’ (Pilgrim, 2012). Not so many people could cope with it. Finally, white primaries, established by the Democratic Party in the southern states. According to them, only white voters were permitted to participate in elections. This is true that such a strategy turned to be really effective. In Mississippi, for instance, fewer

The value and meaning of the arts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The value and meaning of the arts - Essay Example Modern artists reflect upon different incidents, political incidents, and other happenings. For example, in the 1980s, neo expressionism was created by German Expressionist artists like Emil Nolde, Max Beckmann, George Grosz, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, etc. In this style, recognizable objects were painted or sculpted in an abstract manner. Bold colors and depictions of violence were also common. These artists reflected the turmoil of that period. The government needs to support art and culture in order to help it move on to the next step of advancement. If the government had not backed up artists of the neo expressionism era, it would not have been accepted into the world of art. For example, After World War II, Nolde was honored and received the German Order of Merit, West Germany's highest civilian decoration. Emil Nolde, The Prophet, woodcut, 1912 Art has always evolved with time and different variations and new styles have come up. The works of iconic artists of the different periods have always been affected by the happenings, social and economic situations of the respective times. Presently, the most popular style of art is post modernism. Post-modernism is a general sense of the state of the western society, culture and modern art. In the special sense it is a political-scientific-artistic direction that is opposed to the institutions, methods, concepts and basic assumptions of modernity and aims to resolve and overcome it. Post modernism has social consequences. In the modern age, the Meta narratives or social institutions that legitimize political practices, ethics and ways of thinking, are lost in the postmodern era. This consensus dissolves into a multitude of mutually incompatible truth and justice concepts. At the same time takes a tolerant awareness of differences, diversity and plurality, and thus, has the ability to endure the inconsistency of language games. Marcel Duchamp, Fountain, 1917. Photograph by Alfred Steiglitz Not only artists but there a re many non-profit organizations like orchestras, museums, dance troupes, theaters, opera companies who are badly need for money. Huge amount of money needed for each and every dance troupe or opera company to promote their talent. Non-profit organizations are mainly dependent on the money they receive from public and government. They provide the services that we need in order to live nicely in our lives. People cannot live only with their jobs and their busy daily work schedule. They need some recreational activities to some extent for entertainment and these non-profit organizations help us to entertain but they do not get the amount of money they deserve. There are many cases where people do not need to pay a single penny to enjoy an opera show or to enter a museum. Most of the museums across UK or any other country are free for public but they spend a huge cost to maintain the buildings and the things kept inside the museum. There are many examples of shut down of museums as a r esult of insufficient funds. So, federal government should try to arrange some kinds of grant money for these non-profit organizations. One thing government must keep in mind that an individual is an important part of society because a number of individual make a society and the

Diversity Consciousnesses development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Diversity Consciousnesses development - Essay Example In the past, there has been a high level of exclusion in the work force. Such exclusion has been defined by discrimination by some minority groups as well as women in the work place. Minority groups in the United States exhibit racial differences from the mainstream population comprising of the white Americans (Dayer-Berenson, 2010). After immense research concerning diversity, it has emerged that it can be a source of a high level of creativity as well as innovation. Such realization has compelled and motivated American organizations to view diversity in a positive way. Many organizations are struggling to embrace diversity and utilize the potential of diversity in a bid to register growth in their organizations. As Americans become more accommodating of the minority groups, and as civil right movements place emphasis on the need for inclusion, a salient need for diversity consciousness has emerged. This paper will analyze diversity practices evident at the union county college as the focus organization in this study. Moreover, the paper will analyze the findings from two other organizations considering whether they have embraced diversity and whether the employers exhibit diversity consciousness. It is critical to understand the theories and perspectives that define the workforce diversity. With an increasing emphasis on the need for employers to develop diversity consciousness during the hiring process, there is a need to understand the relevant diversity practices that exhibit the presence of diversity consciousness. Evidently, the American workforce comprises of individuals from different backgrounds and personalities. Organizations that have embraced diversity usually benefit from such efforts as a diverse workforce exhibits more core competencies. In a bid to evaluate the modern theories that govern the workforce diversity, it is critical to consider the practices of a specified organization and evaluate the views of the employers concerning the issue

Advanced Valuation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Advanced Valuation - Essay Example When the tenant doesn't have the right to initiate the process there are other provisions governing the situation. Similarly under the market rent review clauses, a time limit would have been prescribed for activating the rent review process. Though the determining valuer has wide discretionary powers, certain criteria like current market rent, assumption of vacant possession of the property, lease incentives and the willingness of the landlord and tenant should be taken into account by the valuer in the rent review process.At times of falling markets, incentives are granted by the landlords to the tenants including a rent free period or a contribution to the cost of the tenant for making the premises fit. In many commercial leases, the agreements contain clauses to disregard the incentives. However it would be disadvantageous for the tenant to allow the disregard as it will result in review of 'face rent'. Face rent is usually an inflated one because of the incentives being included in there. If incentives are disregarded the review would be based on a "comparison of other 'face rents', again ignoring that they are inflated because of the incentives provided under the other leases used as comparisons." (Mark Sheridan 2006)However, the valuer would be compelled to take into account the initiatives, had the lease deed been drafted efficiently. Such a process would result in a meaningful review of the 'effective rent' as against the unrealistic 'face rentals'. "If incentives originally granted at the commencement of the lease are to be taken into account or disregarded then the lease on such a material issue would include a provision that would express the intentions of the parties" (Peter Dempsey)3 In any case, it must be noted that the rent review provisions have to be interpreted by the determining valuer within the context of the whole lease. In general if the determining the valuer is unable to come to a definite conclusion, the determining valuer should seek independent legal advice or the advice from independent experts on the subject. valuer should take care not to exceed his area of expertise and arrive at decisions against the meaning of the rent review clauses. Wherever there supporting legal opinions the valuer should follow such legal opinions only. Under circumstances where He is not expected to decide on issues that are outside the scope of his core competency. Case Law: Citation: Orti-Tullo& Anor v Sadek & anor 2001 ATC 4688 Judge Bryson J Key Issues: The plaintiffs challenge the determination by a valuer of the current market rental value of commercial premises on the exercise of an option to renew a lease. Facts of the Case: The defendants were carrying on the business of a service station on the land leased to them as lessees for a lease period of five years with an option to renew for a further period of five years. The plaintiffs were the lessors. The lease deed provided for the lease rent under one of the clauses of the deed but with no provision for any annual market review. Though there was no dispute about the extension of the lease period, there was a dispute on the rental value determined by the valuer and the petition was to set aside the valuation thus carried out by the valuer as the valuation did not

Sainsbury Resourcing strategy Literature review

Sainsbury Resourcing strategy - Literature review Example Out of these, 32% are on full-time, and 68% are part time. Additionally, 60% of its workers are women, indicating an impartiality of opportunity. Sainsbury’s values deliver the outline of how business is carried out in the organization. They direct all the activities the organization does from important corporate decisions to everyday activities. According to J Sainsbury’s Plc. (2015), the values of Sainsbury are aimed at making a difference to the society by improving its facilities. Secondly, Sainsbury makes sure that its activities respect every employee and individual within the organization. Thirdly, is sourcing with integrity, the company seeks to be honest in all its activities so that customers can have trust in them. Additionally, the company aims at providing healthy, tasty, fresh, and safe food to its consumers that will assist them to live a healthy life every day. Lastly is ensuring that their workplaces are a great place for employees to work so that they can be capable of offering efficient services to the consumers. Sainsbury has a long-term and clear strategy to deliver their vision of becoming the most trusted vendors where individuals love to shop and work. The business priorities of the organization are aimed at making Sainsbury better again, which is the main concern of the organization and emphasis of their business strategies. Sainsbury’s attempts to get feedback from colleagues and customers and then use the data to relate the products existing in the stores and recognize what is the method of delivery to consumers and what obstacles or issues must be fixed (Joseph 2012). Sainsbury is dedicated to dealing with the fundamentals that can aid to improve the services by becoming greater every day to accomplish the objectives. Their main agenda was to reconstructing universal consumer appeal by providing the customers with an enriched shopping experience. This means

The world of science Essay Example for Free

The world of science Essay The world of science has always been an interest for human beings. The need to understand the unknown, to discover cures for diseases, to comprehend how the human body works are the driving force for man to pursue different medical fields. Disease has been something that has haunted and scared people over the years. The discovery of penicillin and other amazing drugs have been phenomenal because they provide a certain hope for those who are ill. Plaques, epidemics and the like used to be a mystery for scientists. However, with the advancement of research, the development of experimental theories and tools, medical professionals soon came up with answers to end high mortality rates. Laboratory experiments have been especially effective in discovering transmission of disease. Scientists now have the knowledge to say whether one type of species is more susceptible to a certain strain of disease causing bacteria than others. The proliferation of certain species, insects, to be more specific, in a particular region also gives scientists a clue regarding how to control, isolate and manipulate the transfer of the illnesses. This is where medical entomology comes in. In numerous reviews that concern the history of medical entomology, people have always regarded the obvious as insignificant. Insects, arthropods and parasites are normal occurrence in the environment. Through the years, people thought that they are harmless until certain events occur. Even in non-medical sources, such as the Bible, one can find reference to insects being the cause of a plague. Although people cannot explain it lengthily then, they have a vague idea that these creatures that originally seemed harmless, could actually cause a catastrophic event that would destroy crops and cause a number of people death. This paper aims to provide a brief background and discuss medical entomology. Since this field of medical science is connected with other fields such as Public Health and Epidemiology, definition of other areas of study would also be discussed to highlight the difference of medical entomology with the said fields. Researches, discoveries and markers of development in this field would also be explained. Specific studies made in the United States would be cited to further emphasize the role of medical entomology in this particular region. This citations of studies would also emphasize on the applications of medical entomology and its practical use in society. Lastly, medical entomology and its various aspects would be correlated to different studies so that the importance of such a field would be completely and clearly understood. Prevention is said to be better than cure. Medical entomology lives up to this saying and this paper aims to discuss how significant this science is to the every day life of society. Entomology is said to be a field of science that dates back to hundreds of years ago. After all, as one scientist mentioned, how can anyone put a date to the study of insects and parasites (Rogers, 1960)? It is known that the eighteenth century truly provided a great turn for entomology as this is the age when organization and taxonomy were finally established for orderly study of insects (Rogers, 1960). The founders of this science were not experts on this field. Instead, they were ordinary people—some who were not even able to finish formal education, some are in the medical profession or even the law. They were not paid for the service they rendered but through these people, medical entomology—its core foundation was established (Rogers, 1960). At present, there are different diseases that remain without cure. For years, people have tried and studied varying carriers and vectors for the fast spread of disease. They found that insects, arthropods, water and food are some of the possible vehicles for disease transmission. Public heath—monitoring, researching and conducting surveys to make sure that health is promoted plays a big role in every day lives of individuals (Edman and Eldridge, 2004). It is through this field of medicine that one is able to understand the prevalence and incidence of a certain disease or phenomenon that is happening, over time or even in just a specific period. Through the years, sub-specializations under Public Health proliferated. Medical entomology is actually one of the fields often regarded as a branch of Epidemiology (Edman and Eldridge, 2004). To be more specific, the field of medical entomology deals with the study of insects and closely related arthropods that play a crucial role in the condition of human health. This may be related to behavior, ecology, and as earlier mentioned, epidemiology of arthropod diseases (Edman and Eldridge, 2004). The main goal of medical entomology is to provide substantial information that could be helpful for government officials, medical professionals, scientists and the like to ensure that the public is safe and away from harm (Edman and Eldridge, 2004). In comparison, epidemiology is basically the study of the occurrence of diseases in different types of people. This is valuable in preventing illness and evaluating present strategies and programs aimed at promoting public health. It is for this definition that medical entomology, public health and epidemiology have an interrelation that is unavoidable. Over the years, people have started paying much attention to medical entomology. With the development of drugs and discovery of diseases and their cures, it is only important to understand the transmission, distribution of certain vectors and factors aiding the widespread of disease and infection. Studies and researches flourished aiming to alert the public and health officials of upcoming dangers to specific species of insects and arthropods. Medical entomology in the United States has played a significant role in disease prevention. As early as the 1800’s researchers have been providing relevant studies that could assist in determining vectors for specific diseases. In the University of Maryland, the Department of Entomology was established as early as 1859 (Entomology, 1986). Agricultural research was highly connected to this field and as insects damaged Maryland in the mid 1890’s legislators were forced to establish the State Horticultural Department (SHD). Regulation, field work and education were the core concepts that the SHD implemented to decrease the occurrences of catastrophic events like crops damage (Entomology, 1986). The academic, experimental and practical aspects of medical entomology became realized and actually applied to prevent further economic degradation for the state. More changes in the University of Maryland occurred in relation to medical entomology. In the 1920’s, they established three main departments aiming at three things. One of this is the eradication of insects which have been introduced to the United States, like the Japanese Beetle (Entomology, 1986). Another is the study of the effective use of pesticides. Lastly, the graduate school of entomology was opened. This has become the start of the realization of the importance of medical entomology. Other states followed and so did the flow of studies. In an article by Madden (1945), he showed how important medical entomology is for society. Florida as he mentioned is a state severely affected by insect-borne diseases. Some of the reasons he depicted in his article talked about how Florida is a subtropical state conducive to the propagation of insects, and the fact that they are near the West Indies, Mexico, Central and South America (Madden, 1945). These things, Madden claimed, could minister to the transmission of insect related diseases and infections (Madden, 1945). In 1973, the importance of a link between science and government has been greatly emphasized. The United States government started realizing and actually paying attention to researches that are concerned with parasitology. Emphasis on how biomedical researches should be given a reasonable budget because they greatly concern public safety was raised (Weinstein, 1973). In addition to this, the government made certain scientists advisors for allocation of funding and grants for biomedical research and training (Weinstein, 1973). Medical entomologists are not confined in the specific field of medical science. Consistent with their jobs in the eighteen hundreds, they remain to play a role in government offices. The U. S. Department of Defense and Centers for Disease Control employs a number of entomologists (www. entsoc. org, 2000). One proof of the current interaction of the United States government and medical entomology is Dr. Robert D. Hall (www. entsoc. org, 2000). The acclaimed professor and researcher is presently employed with the judicial system. He is consulted with regard to law enforcement and interpretation of entomological evidence (www. entsoc. org, 2000). Another study, one by Darsie and Ward (2005), concerned the understanding of the morphology of mosquitoes, their geographical distribution in North America and north of Mexico. By producing such research, they are able to document and possibly correlate certain diseases that profuse in such areas with the mosquitoes that are proliferating there. A related study dealt with the general worldwide threat of arthropod-transmitted diseases (Lederberk, et al, 2002). The associated morbidity and mortality of the cases were taken into consideration. This highlights the need for insect repellant products. The availability of chemical products that could combat such species in the United States were enumerated and studied. The researchers found out which ones were most effective and could provide protection against insects and keep the public less susceptible to acquiring the disease (Lederberk, et al, 2002). Another player in this field, Jerome Goddard devoted a book to the study of major vector-borne diseases around the world. Instead of just focusing on mosquitoes, he dealt with ticks, fleas, and other vectors such as Chaga’s disease and scrub thyphus, to name a few (Goddard, 2000). In his study he provided full length description of the vectors involved provided guidelines for its treatment and controls. He also gave detailed information regarding the biology and geographical distribution of certain species that concerned his study (Goddard, 2000). In this type of research, he was able to pin point and specifically identify vectors that could be harmful and could possibly the transport of diseases to different countries and even continents, without the exception of the United States. His book and study remains as the gold standard reference in understanding the transmission and morphology of insects. As one can see, medical entomology is not concentrated to only one species. Although it may seem that mosquitoes are most paid attention too, other scientists and researchers have been demonstrating interest in different species as well. In a study by Drexler (2000), she applied medical entomology to a subject that could be more applicable to modern day. Anti-terrorism is one of the biggest issues governments are facing today. Especially in the United States where it seems that this is becoming government priority. Medical entomology can play a role here as well. The researcher refers to it as â€Å"the war on germs. † According to Drexler (2000), bioterrorism is one of the biggest threats that could face individuals today. The role of the entomologist is to identify specific vectors for disease and not only focus on one. Food-borned illness or pandemic flu may be caused not only by mosquitoes but also other agents. The more one knows about the source, the more action one can provide against infection. Rapid response and keen surveillance should be skills that entomologists should develop in order to be effective in their field (Drexler, 2000). Providing rapid action could save lives and possibly isolate disease and prevent high morbidity. With the advancement of technology, medical entomology also copes with the fast-paced changes. Different programs such as ProMed-mail (Madoff, 2004) have been made to make archiving and the data base system for infectious diseases, and their causes more efficient. Pro-Med’s main objective is to report outbreaks of infectious diseases that affect humans. It utilizes and maximizes the internet to make sure that researches are instantaneously updated regarding different illnesses that concern entomology. It also serves as an early warning system, should there be a significant imbalance in the ecosystem that could possibly be a threat to human beings (Madoff, 2004). Working hand in hand with the agricultural sector to monitor livestock is also a part of ProMed. This is because ProMed recognizes the importance of these animals in disease transmission. Aside from other scientists in ProMed, medical entomologists have a great responsibility in checking the validity of studies and the information that is made accessible to the public (Madoff, 2004). As one can see from the discussion, medical entomology is of great importance to society. It not only provides knowledge regarding different species or insects and arthropods, it also correlates to disease and susceptibility of human beings to illness. Although entomology also tries to research on cure for certain diseases that are cause by arthropods, medical entomology has the primary goal of preventing the spread of diseases. By understanding the morphology of insects, one is able to predict how fast it can spread the disease it is carrying. In a time where technology is highly being utilized and cure for a great number of diseases is being discovered, individuals realize the importance of medical entomology and the roles it plays in society. It is important to remember that it is a field that cannot stand alone. It works with different other medical sciences and even the government to be able to maximize the knowledge and discoveries it encounters. As for the medical entomology in the United States, it puts great emphasis on the factors resulting to the emergence of microbial threats. These threats open the eyes of the public and alert them to be more cautious of their environment. By providing relevant information, one can be vigilant and the government can provide cost-effective strategies for disease prevention and maintaining the public’s health in the United States. At present, the government is still working hand in hand with medical entomologists. Researches are still being funded because the government has recognized the importance of prevention. It is definitely more cost efficient and effective to avoid threats rather than provide cure when an outbreak has already occurred. Infectious disease is an inevitable part of life. However, this does not mean that people should just remain exposed to such variables that may cause disease. Prevention is the key to avoid catastrophic outbreaks or plaques. With the right tools, sufficient knowledge, prevention can be done.

Commercialization And Profit Making Incentive In Healthcare Economics Essay

Commercialization And Profit Making Incentive In Healthcare Economics Essay Commercialization and the profit making motive in healthcare has been an issue for heated debate in recent times. Should the healthcare industry be regarded as a for profit enterprise or retain the philosophical approach intended which should be to treat sick patients at the barest minimum available price? I will with this essay present an argument against commercialization or a profit making incentive by looking at it from the perspective of the physician, the economy, the patient and all other stakeholders in the sector. As far back as ancient China, a member of a family was expected to be proficient in the art of medicine in other to meet the health demands of his kin. This has eventually evolved into receiving a financial reward for this expertise and hence the emergence of the medical profession as we have known it to be. A doctor sees a patient and receives a fee for treatment offered. This is in itself not a bad thing as quite agreeably, a service has been offered and like most services, should involve remuneration. Only problem with this is that unlike most other types of services, healthcare is quite a peculiar form of service as it doesnt follow the normal laws of economics. For example, a hotelier can decide not to accommodate an individual without the financial capacity to pay for a room but it screams out against all the medical profession has stood for in all these years to turn an individual (who for the sake of strengthening this argument, needs a minimal intervention to prevent a life threatening catastrophe) without the financial capacity away from the hospital. Needless it is to mention that the medical profession is one that has been governed by ethics and rules, the very foundations that make the profession a noble one. A profit making motive serves to do a whole lot more damage than good. Basic definitions Before resuming this essay, it will be important to understand the basic definitions of to concepts which will be the sole foundations of this argument. Profession: As Hodson and Sullivan explain, a profession is a knowledge-based occupation with high status that has four principal characteristics: specialized knowledge, autonomy, and authority over other subordinate occupational groups, and a degree of altruism (Hodson and Sullivan, 2002). These four characteristics can be said to serve as the basic ideologies which define a profession. Commercialized healthcare: Provision of healthcare services through market relationships to those who can afford it; investments in and production of services and of inputs to them, for cash income to profit, including private contracting and supply to publicly financed health services; and healthcare finance by individual payment and private insurance. (UNRISD, 2005) COMMERCIALIZATION AND THE PATIENT It has been effectively argued that putting a price on health will reduce number of patients who seek unnecessary procedures or surgeries such as in the case of cosmetic surgery, or even more positively make people more health conscious for example people will avoid being morbidly obese as they know that the cost of a gastric by-pass surgery will be overwhelming, and will do all they can to get into shape, eat healthier and live a relatively healthier life than if it wasnt expensive. However, the relationship between a physician and the patient is one of trust, where the patient subjects him/herself to the judgement of the physician, judging that the physicians decision about his/her health will be solely guided by the patients best interest at heart, a vulnerable position, very open to abuse and can encourage to promote profit producing drugs, unnecessary surgeries, tests and treatment. In this situation, the possibilities for manipulation and abuse of the trust are limitless. Studies have shown reduced trustworthiness amongst for-profit institutions (Schlesinger et al., 2005). There have been cases heard of doctors keeping patients on dialysis earlier than they should be so that more money can be made, or refusing/not suggesting a kidney transplant which can stop the dialysis altogether. In particular, the relationship between the provider and consumer in this case cannot be compared to what gives under normal economic market forces. This is because the healthc are consumer is not sovereign and lacks the medical know about their condition and what they exactly require. Besides the sick or frightened patients do not regard their physicians as they would normal purveyors of goods and services nor do they regard the hospital as a department store. This is all without mentioning the economic impact it will have on the patient, who might be made to pay for what is relatively cheaper, or even totally unnecessary and that might not be beneficial to the patients health at all. In a for-profit enterprise, treatments and procedures lacking an opening for profit, however effective and cost saving will be disregarded to make way for newer and sometimes even unreliable but far more profitable procedures and treatment. One of the most pressing issues in this is the health inequality gap this creates especially amongst socio-economic groups. Richer individuals who are able to afford the large sums required for their treatment will ultimately survive longer than those who are less privileged. Even the UK health system, which commenced a comprehensive free healthcare system by the mid twentieth century funded by tax revenue, still faces issues with health inequality, how much more a system where healthcare is out of pocket service and with the possibility of profit making motive. COMMERCIALIZATION AND THE DOCTOR The medical doctor is one who has gone through gruelling training to acquire medical skill a supporter of commercialization can easily argue. The cost of training a doctor varies in different countries but arguably tops the list in these countries nonetheless as the training takes longer than a regular undergraduate programme, and of all professions, it is the one that requires constant reading and updating, after all, we are dealing with human lives here. And so, it has been said that well paid professionals, who have no need to worry about their daily needs, and/or catering for their families tend to be the most effective. It is argued that they will be able to concentrate on their jobs fully and perform most efficiently. While comfort cannot be ignored as comfort brings happiness and happiness leads to efficiency, this has never been the backbone of the medical profession. I believe the healthcare provider should be adequately compensated, but not like businessmen, or else the consumer will be perceived as a commodity and no longer as a sick patient in need. For example a healthcare deliverer who is driven for profit, will be biased in the provision of his services, where he/she will have more zeal and attention to a profitable case than he would in a non-profitable one. The physicians oath, which with its third line declares that I will practise my profession with conscience and dignity; the health of my patient will be my first consideration, must always be at the back of his/her mind. Commercialization will lead to leaving certain values and morals that are necessary to a community, such as caring, compassion, charity. The idea of altruism should be perpetuated by all healthcare providers and their primary concern has to be the alleviation of human suffering and the restoration of health. Society must not allow such important and fragile virtues to be extinguished by the self-interest that drives for-profit enterprise. Furthermore, as a marketing scheme, multinational drug companies spend more and more on education in medical schools, and also on doctors with the aim of eventually influencing the physicians decision making, tilting to favour the companies sometimes at the expense of the patient. COMMERCIALIZATION AND THE ECONOMY Health is one of the main priorities of a country and the provision of affordable healthcare and a good welfare system should not be a privilege to any member of a large society. Unfortunately, this will not be seen in a profit oriented health setting. Solicitors of for-profit health institutions will argue that with the advent of managed care, less and less will be spent on healthcare. This is by introducing policies of insurance into healthcare because the more people subscribed to the system, the cost for healthcare will be spread over all of them. Physicians under this programme will be advised to use less expensive treatment and sometimes at the expense of the patient. The cost to the workforce of sick patients who are unable to carry out normal daily activities will be very obvious. Also, when the financially capable are the ones who are more likely to get medical attention and the ones who cannot are left out to dry, it further increases the upper-lower class margin creating a terrible inequality that should not be accepted. COMMERCIALIZATION OF HEALTH AND OTHER STAKEHOLDERS One of the major driving forces of commercialization of healthcare is the introduction of investor owned institutions. Now everybody wants a dip of this now largely rewarding enterprise ranging from bankers to insurance managers, stockbrokers, economists and so on. This has only done nothing but to undermine the authority of the health care provider as he/she is now subject to higher authority; the authority of investors. This will not allow him/her make the best decisions in favour of the patient as his decisions will become profit oriented. There is also the issue of unfair competition for non profit health institutions. When for profit institutions agree to take only the wealthier clients and those who are able to pay, this indirectly shifts all those who are unable to pay to the non profit health care providers causing an undue and unfair burden on them. In some cases it can also turn non-profit institutions into for profit ones, and cycle continues gradually phasing the non-profit institutions out of existence. The medical establishment works closely with the drug multinationals whose main objective is profits, and whose worst nightmare would be an epidemic of good health. Lots of drugs must be sold. In order to achieve this, anything goes: lies, fraud, and kickbacks. Doctors are the principal salespeople of the drug companies. They are rewarded with research grants, gifts, and lavish perks. The principal buyers are the public from infants to the elderly who must be thoroughly medicated and vaccinatedat any cost! Why do the authorities forbid alternative medicine? Because they are serving the industry, and the industry cannot make money with herbs, vitamins, and homeopathy. They cannot patent natural remedies. That is why they push synthetics. They control medicine, and that is why they are able to tell medical schools what they can and cannot teach. They have their own sets of laws, and they force people into them. The healthcare industry has become so reliant on the big multinational co mpanies that these funders exert authority over the healthcare providers, and cause them to violate precepts of medical ethics (Grouse, 2008). Misplaced attention driven by profit making incentive is another issue. Multinational pharmaceutical companies focus their research and development on high profile, profit-making drugs like Viagra instead of developing cures for life threatening diseases in poorer countries.   COMPARISON OF THE UNITED KINGDOM AND THE UNITED STATES HEALTHCARE SYSTEMS The UK as earlier mentioned started a comprehensive free medical coverage for its citizens by 1948. The system is sponsored by tax revenue from its citizens. And as such, healthcare is fully monitored by the government through one body; the NHS which is Englands public health service provider, leading to the provision of free healthcare to its citizens. There are private health institutions for those who will want to pay for services but this is said to be patronized by just about 8% of the total population. Some of the disadvantages of this healthcare system are longer waiting lists as everyone has equal access to healthcare, questionable quality of service as the healthcare providers might sometimes forget that the patient has paid for the service required already through taxes. However, this system has the advantage of free healthcare and nothing beats that. The United State in comparison is largely owned and operated by the private sector. Healthcare insurance is provided largely by the private sector as well except for some health programmes such as the medicare, Medicaid, tricare, the childrens health insurance programme and the veterans health administration which in all are unable to cater for an appreciable percentage of the total population. This kind of healthcare system that is largely dominated by the private sector allows for the profit making incentive to be a common trend. Both systems their strengths and weaknesses Commercialisation of healthcare is something that has been thoroughly scorned on by members of the profession itself. Various medical associations have risen up to fight this threat to the profession. CONCLUSION It is true that a lot of investment goes into the training of a doctor or any healthcare specialist at that and that they need to be well remunerated for their services, however this should not be a primary focus of the service provider because as this essay has shown, the health market differs from all other markets and that the patient doctor relationship is one built solely on trust; trust that the right, best intervention is given to the patient. Perhaps most importantly, professionals must have an ideology that assigns a higher priority to doing useful and needed work than to economic rewards, an ideology that focuses more on the quality and social benefits of work than its profitability. This ideology is one that should be preserved for the sake of the profession. The younger generation of health care providers should also be considered so nobody should go into this profession with the aim of amassing wealth, so that the altruistic nature of the profession, which stands as one of its core values, will be preserved. Healthcare is a right and not a privilege and it goes without saying that every society is morally obliged to provide healthcare to its members. An increase in for-profit health care provision however, will only exacerbate the growing problem of accessibility to healthcare.